HomeMy WebLinkAbout01-Workshop Handout
Rachel Clark
CITY OF SAN BERNARDINO
MA YOR/COUNCILlADMINISTRA TOR/DEPARTMENT
HEADS
GOAL SETTING WORKSHOP
.
JANUARY 25, 2002
TWR CONSULTANTS
POST OFFICE BOX 2935
PALM SPRINGS, CA 92263-2935
TEL: 760-321-5188
FAX: 760-324-9058
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CITY OF SAN BERNARDINO
MA YOR/COUNCILlADMINISTRA TOR/DEP ARTMENT HEADS
1-3 STYLES
I. Mayor and Council
1. Mayor Judith Va11es-EmotinglSupporting
2. Esther Estrada-Directing
3. Joe Suarez-SupportinglEmoting
4. Wendy McCammack-Directing
5. Betty Anderson-Directing/Emoting
6. Neil Derry(takes office in March)--
7. Gordon McGinnis-AnalyzinglSupporting
8. Susan Lien--SupportinglAnalyzing
II. Administrator and Department Heads
1. Fred Wilson-City Administrator -Analytical
2. GVO--Analytical
3. Lemuel Randolph--SupportinglAnalytical
4. Frank Keller-Supporting
5. Ophelia Roop-AnalyticaVDirecting
6. Jim Sharer-Analytical
7. Glenn Baude-Supporting
8. Janis Ingels-Analytical
9. Lynn Merrill-Analytical
10. James Funk-AnalyticaVSupporting
11. Mike Newbry-AnalyticaVSupporting
12. Garrett Zimmon--SupportinglAnalytical
13. Bernie Kersey-Directing
14. Larry Pitzer-AnalyticaVSupporting
15. Barbara Pachon-Directing
16. Jon Cicirelli-Supporting
17. Ed Raya-Supporting/Emoting
18. Rachel Clark-AnalyticaVSupporting
19. Lori Sassoon-DirectinglAnalytical
20. Teri Rubi-Emoting/Supporting
21. June Durr-DireclinglEmoting
Will be joining the Workshop in the afternoon for the Action Planning Teams
discussion and the Round Robin. Have not taken the 1-3.
1. Roy Casey (EDC)
2. Maggie Pacheco (EDC) .
3. Bob Simmons (City Attorney's Office)
;
CITY OF SAN BERNARDINO
MAYOR/COUNCIL/ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
PRIORITY GOALS ACTION PLANNING TEAMS
COMPOSITION OF TEAMS:
Mixed Teams of Council and Administrative Team.
Note: Mayor Valles is not assigned to a specific team and will "float" among the teams.
PURPOSE:
To review the past year's priority goal action planning process to determine:
I. Those things that helped the team to make progress in implementing their action plan.
2. Those things that impeded the team's progress in implementing their action plan.
3. What we will do differently in 2002 to improve the action planning process toward a higher level
of implementation.
4. Which of our Action Items that will need increased emphasis in 2002 and why.
Priority 1: Maintain City and Agency financial stability
Wendy McCammack
Fred Wilson
Gary Van Osdel
Barbara Pachon
Priority 2: Image Enhancement
Gordon McGinnis
June Durr
Ophelia Roop
Frank Keller
Lemuel Randolph
Garrett Zimmon
Priority 3: Provide adequate staffing levels to meet service demands
Betty Anderson
Ed Raya
Mike Newbry
Jim Sharer
f
Priority 4: Create the "Lakes and Streams" project as the City's signature development
Esther Estrada
Susan Lien
Bernie Kersey
James Funk
Priority 5: Develop more effective blight abatement
Neil Derry
Glenn Baude
Lynn Merrill
Jon Cicirelli
Larry Pitzer
Maggie Pacheco
Priority 6: Increase efforts to become streamlined, less bureaucratic
Joe Suarez
Janis Ingels
Rachel Clark
Teri Rubi
Lori Sassoon
Ray Casey
Bob Simmons
2
I
CITY OF SAN BERNARDINO MA YOR/COUNCIL/ADMlNISTRATOR/
DEPARTMENT HEADS GOAL SETTING WORKSHOP
JANUARY 25, 2002
I. OBJECTIVES
A. To celebrate our achievements
B. To enhance our Team's effectiveness
C. To explore our individual and team challenges and opportunities
D. To identify priorities for new emphasis in 2002.
E. To resolve specific issues raised by individuals
I. FACILITATORS
Tom Robertson
Shirley Poitras
It PROCEDURES
Frldav. Januarv 25th
7:30 a.m.
8:00 a.m.
9:00 a.m.
10:00 a.m.
10:15 a.m.
!0:45a.m.
12:00 Noon
12:30 p.m.
2:00 p.m.
3:00 p.m.
Gathering
Introduction to workshop
. Objectives
. Procedures
. Standards
. Celebrating achievements
"Effecting Change: San Bernardino's past is not its future" -Ted Gaebler
Break
LeadershiplDecision Making
Enhancing Our Team's Effectiveness (Round #1)
Lunch
Enhancing Our Team's Effectiveness (Round #2)
Summary
. Loose ends/next steps
. Evaluations
. Public Comments
Adjourn
UNlD>lBlRSlI' ANDlING YOUR
ORGANlIUTlION-S CHARACTER
By: Roger Harrison
The resolution of organizational conflicts
requires a knowledge of the basic
ideological differences that underly them
FOREWORD
The character of an organization, according to this author, is rooted in its ideological orientation. He postulates four
separate ideologies that determine (a) the compatibility of an organization's interests with those of its members and
(b) an organization's ability to deal with the external environment. He argues, moreover, that the failure to
understand ideological differences often causes contlict between organizations as well as within them. After
discussing the different ideologies and the types of organizations they embody, the author presents an overall
framework for determining the optimum ideological fit of organizational interests and human interests.
Mr. Harrison is Vice President of Development Research Associates, Inc. of Newton Center, Massachusetts and is
based in London. As a social psychologist he is concerned with the design and building of organizations to cope
with unusual stresses and with the development of initiative and autonomy through experience-based learning
processes. He has taught in the Department oflndustrial Administration at Yale University.
The failure to recognize the ideological issues that underlie organizational conflict is common
among managers and administrators. Usually the issues are recognized only when they are blatant
and the lines of struggle are drawn, as in labor-management relationships. But by then the
conflict may well have developed to the point where a constructive resolution is virtually
impossible.
While the term "organization ideologies" is perhaps unfortunately ambiguous, it is the best name I
can apply to the systems of thought that are central determinants of the character of organizations.
An organization's ideology affects the behavior of its people, its ability to effectively meet their
needs and demands, and the way it copes with the external environment. Furthermore, much of
the conflict that surrounds organization change is really ideological struggle (an idea that is
certainly not new to political science but one about which behavioral scientists have, until recently,
been curiously quiet).
For example, during the commissioning and start-up stages of a U.S. chemical plant in Europe, it
became apparent that the Americans and local nationals involved had rather different ideas about
decision making and commitment to decisions. Consider the approach of each group:
. The Americans tended to operate within what I shall later describe as a task -oriented
ideology. In problem-solving meetings they believed that everyone who had relevant
ideas or information should contribute to the debates, and that in reaching a decision the
greatest weight should 'be given to the best-informed and most knowledgeable people.
They strove, moreover, for a clear-cut decision; and once the decision was made, they
usually were committed to it even if they did not completely agree with it.
Sentient Systems, Inc. 133 E. De La Guerra Street, Suite 232, Santa Barbara, CA 93101
Phone: (805) 692-1992 Fax: (805) 692-9551
. Some of the nationals, however, came to the project from very authoritarian
organizations and tended to operate from a power-oriented ideological base (this will
also be described later). Each individual seemed to be trying to exert as much control
as possible and to accept as little influence from others as he could. If he was in a
position of authority, he seemed to ignore the ideas of juniors and the advice of staff
experts. If he was not in a position of authority, he kept rather quiet in meetings and
seemed almost happy when there was an unclear decision or no decision at all. He
would then proceed the way he had wanted to all along.
The task-oriented people regarded the foregoing behavior as uncooperative and, sometimes, as
devious or dishonest. The power-oriented people, however, interpreted the task-oriented
individuals' emphasis on communication and cooperation as evidence of softness and fear of
taking responsibility.
Each group was engaging in what it regarded as normal and appropriate practice and tended to
regard the other as difficult to work with or just plain wrong. The fact that the differences were
ideological was dimly realized only by the more thoughtful participants. The remainder tended to
react to each other as wrongheaded individuals, rather than as adherents of a self -consistent and
internally logical way of thinking and explaining their organizational world.
In this article I shall present a theory that identifies four distinct, competing organization ideologies
and their meaning for the businessman. But, first, let me attempt to further clarify the concept.
Here are the most obvious functions that an organization ideology performs:
. Specifies the goals and values toward which the organization should be directed and by
which its success and worth should be measured.
. Prescribes the appropriate relationships between individuals and the organization (i.e.,
the "social contract" that legislates what the organization should be able to expect from
its people, and vice versa).
. Indicates how behavior should be controlled in the organization and what kinds of
control are legitimate and illegitimate.
. Depicts which qualities and characteristics of organization members should be valued or
vilified, as well as how these should be rewarded or punished.
. Shows members how they should treat one another--competitively or collaboratively,
honestly or dishonestly, closely or distantly.
. Establishes appropriate methods of dealing with the external environment-aggressive
exploitation, responsible negotiation, proactive exploration.
VALVES & IDEOLOGIES
An organization ideology, however, is more than a set of prescriptions and prohibitions. It also
establishes a rationale for these "do"s and "don't"s. This rationale explains the behavior of an
organization's members as well as the working of the external environment (in the latter case, by
telling members how to expect other people and organization systems to behave).
The rationale of an organization ideology is similar to what behavioral scientists call "organization
theory." The difference is that behavioral scientists try with varying degrees of success to keep
their values from influencing their organization theories; people, for the most part, do not try to
Sentient Systems, Ine: 133 E. De La Guerra Strut, Suite 232, Santa Barbara, CA 93/01
Phone: (805) 692-1992 Fax: (805) 692-9551
-I
I
,
keep their values from influencing their organization ideologies. (This is one reason why
education about organization behavior is likely to be so emotionally loaded; if you change a man's
organization theory, he usually ends up questioning his values as well.)
Among people in organizations, ideas of "what is" and "what ought to be" merge into one another
and are--or are made to appear-consistent. Here is an example:
The ideology of a large U.S. manufacturer of consumer products prescribed that work should be
organized in the way that produced the most profit. If this meant that some organization members
had boring jobs which offered little opportunity for satisfaction and pride in their work, then it was
unfortunate but ideologically irrelevant. According to the rationale of this ideology, a majority of
people did not have much aptitude or desire for responsibility and decision making, anyhow, and
those who did would rise by natural selection to more responsible, satisfying jobs.
Some young managers, however, had rather more egalitarian personal values. They uneasily
suspected that there were more boring jobs than there were apathetic people to fill them. They
were very excited about a group of research studies which attempted to show that giving
employees more responsibility and involvement in decision making actually led to improved
performance. But in my discussions with the managers, I found that the studies' instrumental
value in improving organization effectiveness was not the cause of their popularity; rather, they
were welcomed because they helped the managers reconcile their personal values with the dictum
of the prevailing ideology that work should, above all, be organized to produce the best economic
result. (I have, in fact, found that behavioral research findings are usually accepted or rejected on
such ideological grounds instead of on the probability of their being true.)
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
There is considerable body of thought in political science which holds that attempts to resolve
ideological struggle or unwarranted interferences with the natural course of history and as such are
doomed to be ineffectual.
I do not feel that this theory has been adequately tested, particu1arly in regard to organization
change and development. The first step in testing it is to develop ways of discovering and
understanding ideological conflicts when they arise in organizations.
In the remainder of this article I shilll present a conceptual framework for doing this. It postulates
four organization ideologies: (I) power orientation; (2) role orientation; (3) task orientation; and
(4) person orientation. These ideologies are seldom found in organizations as pure types, but most
organizations tend to center on one or another of them. I shall describe and contrast them in .their
pure form to emphasize their differences, and then indicate what I believe to be the strengths and
weaknesses of each. After this I shall apply the conceptual model to some common conflicts in
modem organization life.
Power Orientation
An organization that is power-oriented attempts to dominate its environment and vanquish all
opposition. It is unwilling to be subject to any external law or power. And within the organization
those who are powerful strive to maintain absolute control over subordinates.
The power-oriented organization is competitive and jealous of its territory (whether this be
markets, land area, product lines, or access to resources). It seeks to expand its control at the
expense of others, often exploiting weaker organizations. Even a weak power-oriented
organization takes satisfaction in being able to dominate others that are still weaker. Such
organizations always attempt to bargain to their own advantage and readily find justification for
abrogating agreements which are no longer self-serving.
Sentient Systems, Inc. 133 E. De La Guerra Street, Suite 232, Santa Barbara, CA 93101
Phone: (805) 692-1992 Fax: (805) 692-9551
Some modern conglomerates project images of power ideology. They buy and sell organizations
and people as commodities, in apparent disregard of human values and the general welfare. They
seem to have voracious appetites for growth, which is valued for its own sake. Competition to
acquire other companies and properties is ruthless and sometimes outside the law. Within the
organization, the law of the jungle often seems to prevail among executives as they struggle for
personal advantage against their peers.
There is, however, a softer form of the power orientation that is often found among old established
firms, particularly those with a background of family ownership. Here the employees may be
cared for rather than exploited, especially those that are old and loyal. Externally, the proprietors
may hold to a code of honor, especially when dealing with others like themselves. This is the
power orientation with a velvet glove. But when the benevolent authority is crossed or challenged,
from either within or without, the iron fist is very likely to appear again. In such cases, the test of
power orientation is how hard a person or organization will fight for power and position when
these are at issue.
Role Orientation
An organization that is role-oriented aspires to be as rational and orderly as possible. In contrast to
the willful autocracy of the power-oriented organization, there is a preoccupation with legality,
legitimacy, and responsibility.
It is useful to see role orientation as having developed partly in reaction to power orientation.
Competition and conflict, for example, are regulated or replaced by agreements, rules, and
procedures. Rights and privileges are carefully dermed and adhered to. While there is a strong
emphasis on hierarchy and status, it is moderated by the commitment to 'legitimacy and legality.
The different attitudes of the power and role orientations toward authority might be likened to the
differences between a dictatorship and a constitutional monarchy.
Predictability of behavior is high in the role-oriented organization, and stability and respectability
are often values as much as competence. The correct response tends to be more highly valued than
the effective one. Procedures for change tend to be cumbersome; therefore the system is slow to
adapt to change.
Most commercial organizations are too constricted by market demands to afford the extreme
rigidity of a pure role orientation or the worst excesses of its tendency to place procedural
correctness before task effectiveness. Some businesses, however, which either control their
markets or operate in areas that are highly regulated by law, exhibit a considerable degree of role
orientation. The rationality, impersonality, and adherence to procedure of many banks, insurance
companies, public utilities, and social work organizations are cases in point. Their role orientation
leaves the customer, the public, or the client with little alternate choice in dealing with them.
Task Orientation
In the organization that is task-oriented, achievement of a superordinate goal is the highest value.
The goal need not be economic; it could be winning a war, converting the heathen, reforming a
government, or helping the poor. The important thing is that the organization's structure,
functions, and activities are all evaluated in terms of their contribution to the superordinate goal.
Nothing is permitted to get in the way of accomplishing the task. If established authority impedes
achievement, it is swept away. If out-moded roles, rules, and regulations hinder problem solving,
they are changed. If individuals do not have the skills or technical knowledge to perform a task,
they are retrained or replaced. And if personal needs and social considerations threaten to upset
effective problem solving, they are suppressed in the interests of "getting on with the job."
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There is no ideological commitment to authority, respectability, and order as such. Authority is
considered legitimate only if it is based on appropriate knowledge and competence; it is not
legitimate if it is based solely on power or position. And there is little hesitation to break rules and
regulations if task accomplishment is furthered by doing so.
There is nothing inherently competitive about task orientation. The organization structure is
shaped and changed to meet the requirements of the task or function to be performed. Emphasis is
placed on rapid, flexible organization response to changed conditions. Collaboration is sought if it
will advance the goal; allies are chosen on the basis of mutual goals and values; and there is little
"advantage seeking" in relationships with other organizations.
The task orientation is most readily found in those small organizations whose members have corne
together because of some shared value, task, or goal. Examples are social service organizations,
research teams, and high-risk businesses. Often, however, internal conflict and external stress
drive these organizations toward power and role orientations.
Large organizations that operate in highly complex, shifting environments offer more durable
examples. Companies involved with dynamic markets or fast-changing, complex technology
frequently establish project teams or "task forces." These groups of specialists are selected to
solve a particular problem and often operate in a very flexible and egalitarian manner until the
problem is solved. The units are then disbanded, and the members join other teams to work on
new problems. Although the larger organization in which it operates may be basically role- or
power-oriented, the project team or task force often exhibits a relatively pure task orientation.
Moreover, these groups have been so successful that some organizations are trying to install a task-
oriented ideology throughout their operations.
Some of the aerospace industries have probably gone the furthest in this direction, lRW Systems
being a notable example. Although I do not know of any large organization that could be classed
as "pure" in its task orientation, the success of such task-oriented programs as MBO is a sign of
the growing interest among managers. Parenthetically, the most frequent reason for the failure of
MBO is probably that task-oriented managers try to install it in power- or role-oriented
organizations.
Person' Orientation
Unlike the other three types, the person-oriented organization exists primarily to serve the needs of
its members. The organization itself is a device through which the members can meet needs that
they could not otherwise satisfy by themselves. Just as some organizations continually evaluate
the worth of individual members as tools and accept or reject them accordingly, so the person-
oriented organizations are evaluated as tools by their members. For this reason, some of these
organizations may have a very shon life; they are disposable when they cease to provide a system
for members to "do their own thing".
Authority in the role- or power-oriented sense is discouraged. When it is absolutely necessary,
authority may be assigned on the basis of task competence, but this practice is kept to the bare
minimum. Instead, individuals are expected to influence each other through example, helpfulness,
and caring.
Consensus methods of decision making are preferred; people are generally not expected to do
things that are incongruent with their own goals and values. Thus roles are assigned on the basis
of personal preference and the need for learning and growth. Moreover, the burden of
unrewarding and unpleasant tasks is shared equally.
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llIustrations of person orientation are small groups of professionals who have joined together for
research and development. Some consulting companies, too, seem to be designed primarily as
vehicles for members. It is typical of such organizations that growth, expansion, and
maximization of income and profit are not primary considerations. Rather, the organizations,
hopefully, are conducted to make enough money to survive and provide their members with a
reasonable living as well as an opportunity to do meaningful and enjoyable work with congenial
people.
There seems to be increasing pressures from the members of modem industrial organizations to
move toward person orientation. Young professionals are pushing their companies for
opportunities to work on interesting, worthwhile (congruent with their own values) projects.
Engineers and scientists, for example, have refused to work on projects for the militaty and have
been successful in getting transfers to nondefense-related activities. Job recruiters find that college
graduates are often more interested in opportunities to learn and grow than they are in their chances
for organization advancement. Such signs of social change illustrate why the person orientation
must be considered an ideological force to be reckoned with, even though there are few
contemporary organizations that operate in total congruence with its principles.
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
An organization ideology obviously has a profound effect on organization effectiveness. It
determines how (a) decisions are made, (b) human resources are used, and (c) the external
environment is approached. An organization ideology tends to be internally viable when the people
within the system want and need the prescribed incentives and satisfactions that reward good
performance. It tends to be extemally viable when the organization it embodies is a microcosm of
the external environment and rewards the same skills, values, and motivations.
External Viability
Usually as an organization increases in size, its operational environment becomes more complex.
Most arenas in which large companies operate change rapidly and/or have many features that
require an integrated response. World-wide markets and rapidly changing technology, for
example, make heavy demands on the information-processing and decision-making capabilities of
organizations.
The power-oriented organization is not well adapted to flexible response and effective information
processing in such environments. Since decisions are made at the top, the information has to pass
through many people who screen out the "irrelevant" data. Moreover, some may distort the
message to their own advantage (aggressive competition is part of the ideology). And when
conditions change rapidly, the time lag introduced by the filtering process may unduly delay
organization response.
The role-oriented organization is also insufficiently flexible to easily adapt to rapid external
changes. In order to achieve the security that is one of its highest values, it must perpetuate rather
rigid roles and reporting relationships. This gives stability but means that even the most powerful
individuals may be unable to produce needed changes quickly.
In times of change, established procedures often do not apply, and the information channels
become overloaded with problems that require higher-level decisions. Consider what happened in
the commissioning and start-up example referred to at the beginning of this article:
Because equipment was not working properly, many actions which ordinarily would have been
dealt with by standard operating procedures required top-management decisions. But the ordinary
channels would not carry the necessary volume of information, and the quality of decision making
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and problem solving suffered accordingly. However, when control was shifted to teams of
experts clustered around each plant (a task-oriented system) the problems were handled much more
smoothly.
Change-oriented structures: The task-oriented organization's greatest strength is dealing with
complex and changing environments. Decentralized control shortens communication channels and
reduces time lags, distortion, and attenuation of messages.
Both the power- and role-oriented organizations associate control with a position in the
organization; neither provides for rapid and rational reassignment of appropriate persons to
positions of influence. In contrast, the task oriented ideology clears the way for a very flexible
system of control-one that can shift rapidly over time as differing resources are required by external
problems.
Probably the best example of this system in operation is the project team or task force that is
formed to identify, diagnose, and solve a particular problem. Even some rather bureaucratic
organizations make use of these temporary systems for emergency problem solving. The task
force leader is selected for his combination of technical expertise and ability to manage a small
group in an egalitarian manner.
The temporary work system is a particularly characteristic response of the task-oriented
organization to environmental change. These temporary systems can be activated quickly,
provided with the necessary mix of skills and abilities, and disbanded again when the need is past.
Their use provides what is, in effect, a continuously variable organization structure.
The person-oriented organization, too, is well adapted to dealing with complexity and change. It
also features a fluid structure and short lines of communication and control.
Coping with threat: In a highly competitive environment where organizations are frequently
confronted with overt threats and hostility, the strengths and weaknesses of ideological types form
a different pattern.
For example, while the power-oriented organization is not well suited to handle complexity and
change, its structure and decision-making processes are admirably suited for swift decision making
and rapid-action follow-through under high-risk conditions. It tends to promote tough, aggressive
people who can lead the organization in a dangerous, competitive environment.
The task-oriented organization usually takes longer to respond, but the response is more likely to
be based on adequate data and planning. In contrast to the power-oriented structure, which is
aggressively directed from the top, it tends to enlist the full commitment of organization members
at all levels.
The role-oriented organization does not deal successfully with sudden increases in threat because it
relies heavily on established operational procedures. Consequently, its structure is too
cumbersome to react quickly in cases of overt threat.
And the person-oriented organization has difficulty directing its members' activities in unison until
the danger is so clear and present that it may be too late. The person-oriented structure, however,
does offer some advantages--its members are committed and have a high concern for one another's
welfare.
Probably the most viable organization in a hostile, threatening environment would have a
combination of the power and task orientations. This is a difficult marriage, however, because the
desire for personal power is often incompatible with the required willingness to relinquish control
to those with the most knowledge and ability for the task at hand.
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Internal Viability
The power-oriented organization is an excellent structure for attaching many eyes, ears, hands, and
feet to one brain. It exercises tight internal control and integration. As mentioned earlier, the
system works well when problems take the form of overt challenges that can be comprehended and
solved by one or a few intelligent, courageous men at the top.
But when the power-oriented organization becomes large and complex, this control tends to break
down. Under these conditions the role-oriented ideology is more effective. It provides rules and
procedures that allow a high degree of internal integration with little active intervention from the
top.
It is obviously more difficult to achieve internal cohesion under a task- or person-oriented
ideology. For example, if the work is done by temporary project teams, how are their efforts to be
coordinated to a common goal? When a problem-solving team comes up with a solution and then
disbands, how is its work to be given impact and continuity in the rest of the organization? Some
stable and central structure is needed to provide coordination, long-range planning, and continuity
of effort. If it is too stable, however, it may become role-oriented (rigid and hard to change) or
power-oriented (recentraJizing control). The personal power and security needs of individual
members may foster such developments.
These dilemmas of internal structure have led to various compromise solutions such as the "matrix
organization." The term "matrix" is used because the actual working groups cut horizontally
across the normal functional-pyramidal organization, bringing together selected individuals from
different functions and different levels to work in a relatively autonomous, egalitarian group.
Structural stability is provided by a fixed role-oriented framework organized on functional lines.
Personnel are readily detachable from the functions for varying periods of time during which they
join a task-oriented work unit or project team. They are directed by the work unit; but their pay,
career prospects, and promotions emanate from the role-oriented part of the system.
Matrix forms of organization have been used with success in highly technical businesses operating
in a fast-changing environment. Again, TRW Systems is perhaps the oldest and most
comprehensive example. Considerable experimentation with matrix forms has also taken place in
the chemical industry, both in the United States and abroad.
Although the matrix system can be effective, it often suffers from attempts of the role-oriented
functions to overcontrol the task-oriented functions. The resulting conflict is usually won by the
former, which has greater permanence and more resources. One reason for this difficulty is that
organizations try to operate partially task-oriented structures without commitment to the ideology.
Role-oriented people cannot be plugged into a task-oriented system without conflict.
Effective motivation: While the power-oriented organization provides a chance for a few
aggressive people to fight their way to the top, it offers little security to the ordinary person. It is
most viable in situations where people are deprived and powerless and have to accept a bad bargain
as better than none. For example, the power-oriented organization thrives in underdeveloped
countries.
The power-oriented organization also has the problem of using too much of its energy to police
people. Reliance on rewards and punishments tends to produce surface compliance and covert
rebellion. Where the quantity and quality of work can be observed (as on an assembly line),
inspection and discipline may keep the system working. But if the power does not command
loyalty as well, the system usually breaks down. A simple example is the sabotage of hard~to-test
aspects of car assembly by disgruntled workers.
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The role-oriented ideology tries to deal with the difficulty of supervising complex decision-making
and problem-solving tasks by rationalization and simplification. Each job is broken into smaller
elements, rules are established, and performance is observed. When conditions change, however,
the members are likely to continue carrying out the same (now ineffective) procedures.
The power- and role-oriented organizations simply do not provide for the development and
utilization of internal corrunitment, initiative, and independent judgment on the part of members at
other than the highest levels. Nevertheless, in societies where most people's aspirations are just to
get by, or at most to achieve a measure of economic security, the power- and role-oriented
organizations are able to function adequately.
III affluent societies, however, where security is more widely assured, people begin to look for
deeper satisfactions in their work. They attempt to change tightly controlled work assignments and
rigid internal structures. When trends toward task orientation ("useful," "meaningful" work) and
person orientation (interesting work, self expression, and "doing one's own thing") begin to
develop in the wider society, internal pressures for change develop within power- and role-oriented
organizations.
Unfortunately, not all people can function productively in a flexible and egalitarian structure.
Some people are dependent, apathetic, or insecure. They do need external incentives to work and
directives or rules to guide their activities.
Furthermore, the task-oriented ideology has its own ways of exploiting the individual. When his
knowledge and skills become obsolete for the task at hand, an individual is expected to step
gracefully aside to make room for someone who is better qualified. Status and recognition depend
almost entirely on task contribution; if the problems facing the organization change suddenly, this
can produce cruel reversals of an individual's personal fortune and work satisfaction.
The person-oriented organization seems to be specially created to fit the work situation to the
motives and needs of the independent, self-directed individual. It is flexible to his demands,
whereas the power-oriented organization is controlling; it gives scope for his individual
expression, whereas the role-oriented organization programs every move; it is concerned about his
personal needs, whereas the task-oriented organization uses people as instruments for "higher"
ends. Unfortunately, as discussed above, the person-oriented organization is less likely to be
effective in the external environment than organizations based on the other ideologies.
TOWARD RESOLVING CONFLICT
One basic tension runs throughout the ideologies and organization types discussed thus far. It is
the conflict between (a) the values and structural qualities which advance the interests of people and
(b) the values and structural qualities which advance the interests of organizations.
I can identify six interests, all mentioned previously, which are currently the subject of ideological
tension and struggle. Three of these are primarily interests of people, and three are primarily
interests of organizations. The three interests of people are:
1. Security against economic, political, or psychological deprivation.
2. Opportunities to voluntarily commit one's efforts to goals that are personally
meaningful.
3. The pursuit of one's own growth and development, even where this may conflict with
the immediate needs of the organization.
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The three interests of organizations are:
I . Effective response to threatening and dangerous complex environments.
2. Dealing rapidly and effectively with change and complex environments.
3. Internal integration and coordination of effort toward organization needs and goals,
including the subordination of individual needs to the needs of the organization.
These are obviously not all the interests at issue, but in my opinion they are among the most
salient.
Exhibit I shows the position of each ideology vis-a-vis each interest and indicates, as does the
preceding analysis, that the four ideologies have quite dissimilar profiles. Each ideology thus
"fits" the needs of a given organization and its members differently. For example, a small
organization operating in a rapidly changing technical field and employing people who desire
personal growth and autonomy might find its best fit with either the task or person orientation (this
depends, of course, on how competitive its markets are and what financial shape it is in). A very
large organization operating a slowly changing technology in a restricted market and employing
people who desire stability and security might find that a role orientation would provide the best
balance.
For most organizations, however, there is no perfect fit with anyone of the four ideologies. The
"ideal" ideology would possess some power orientation to deal smartly with the competition, a bit
of role orientation for stability and internal integration, a charge of task orientation for good
problem solving and rapid adaption to change, and enough person orientation to meet the questions
of the new recruit who wants to know why he should be involved at all unless his needs are met.
But, unfortunately, this mixture of ideologies and their consequences for people and organizations
will inevitably result in conflict, and its subsequent wear and tear on organizations and their
members. Trying to mix ideologies may also prevent each type from producing the advantages that
are unique to it.
On the other hand, I do not think that the most viable organizations and the maximum satisfaction
of human needs will result from monolithic structures which are ideologically homogeneous. It
seems to me that we must learn to create and maintain organizations that contain within them the
same diversity of ideologies and structures as are found in the complex environments in which the
organizations must live and grow. This means that organizations may have to be composed of
separate parts that are ideologically homogeneous within themselves yet still quite different from
each other.
Such organizations will be very effective in dealing with complex environments and maximizing
satisfactions for different types of people, but they will be subject to more internal conflict and
ideological struggle than most current organizations could tolerate. For example, instead of a
"company spirit" there will be several "company spirits," all different and very likely antagonistic.
In this environment of conflicting but mutually interdependent parts, the management--not the
resolution--of conflict will be a task of the greatest importance. One can imagine, in fact, that the
most important job of top managers will not be directing the business, but instead, managing the
integration of its parts. I
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CONCLUDING NOTE
Whether men confront or avoid them, ideological issues will continue to sharpen of their own
accord. both inside and outside the organization. As long as we continue to raise and educate our
children pennissively. the pressure from younger members of the organization for greater person
orientation will increase. As operational environments become more turbulent and more technical,
the attractions of task orientation will make themselves felt. Yet every change in organizations
means some degree of power redistribution and with it some shift in rewards-osuch shifts will
always be resisted by those with the most to lose, usually the older members of the organization
who have a higher status. Thus I believe that ideological conflict will increase within
organizations, whether that conflict is dealt with openly or not.
By dealing with such conflict openly, however, businessmen may find ways to manage it in the
service of both the organization and its members and also to use tension creatively as well as
competitively. Hidden conflict, on the other hand, tends to eat away at the strength of an
organization and then to erupt when it is most dangerous to organization health.
In writing this article, I have attempted to render these inevitable ideological differences more
conceptually clear. The next step is to develop a common language and set of norms that support
both the open confrontation of such issues and the strategies for dealing with them in our
organizations.
1. See Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Larsch. "New Management Job: The Integrator" HBR November-December 1967,
P.142.
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By: David G. Jones, Ph.D.
The Relationship of Feelings to Communication
In communicating with people emotional data must be given the same consideration as
factual infOlmation. But most of us deal primarily with facts and aren't quite sure of our
skills in relating to feelings. There are several important principles about how feelings
operate that can be useful to understand and which underlie the listening and sending skills
you are being taught to use.
Content/Relationship Distinction
Communication takes place at two levels: The Content Level - the subject matter we are
discussing, and the Relationship Level - what we communicate to the other person about
how much we value them or accept them. Think about the last time someone ordered you
to do something: You may not have found very much you could disagree with at a Content
Level, but you still felt resentful or "put down" at the manner in which the order was given.
The Relationship Level operates primarily on feelings. "I feel valued, accepted,
comfortable." If you also think about times when you've disagreed strongly with someone
- such as a political argument - and enjoyed it, 1 think you will find it was with someone
you' respected and who you knew respected you. You couId argue because you were
certain the argument would not fundamentally alter the mutual respect.
In other words, if there is mutual respect and trust at a Relationship Level it is possible to
agree or disagree with equal comfort.
But if the mutual respect and trust does not exist, then every Content Level issue also
becomes a test of the relationship.
This is why 1 have expressed so much concern for principles of visibility, openness, etc. -
how you structure and conduct your program can build a trust at the Relationship Level
which will allow for comfort in discussing issues.
Acceptance of Feelings:
One way we communicate acceptance at a Relationship Level is by communicating
acceptance of feelings as well as facts. If we only accept facts from people we are
accepting them conditionally: "I will accept only certain parts of you; 1 will accept you as
long as you aren't expressing feelings." This is a bit like telling people that you accept all
of them except their arms and legs - most bodies come fully equipped. People come fully
equipped with feelings and these are a great part of what makes them uniquely them.
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The result is that when people express feelings and they are not accepted, they tend to push
harder as if to prove that their feelings are justified, or to prove to themselves that it is really
all right to feel the way they do.
One way to think about it is that feelings are like running water through a hose. If you
close up the faucet the pressure begins to build. If and when the pressure gets great
enough, it will burst someplace, either removing the obstacle or rupturing a weak place in
the hose. On the other hand when feelings are accepted (like the water), the feelings now
come out less pressured, less accusatory and less defensive. In addition, once expressed,
other feelings can flow in behind.
Thus the needed skill in communication is to learn to accept feelings so that pressure does
not build up, and people feel that tremendous force must be brought to bear just to be
heard.
Acceptance vs. Agreement:
We have been talking about accepting feelings, but let's take a minute to distinguish
acceptance from agreement. You express acceptance when you say: "I understand that you
feel such-and-such a way about this topic." You express agreement when you say: "You
couldn't be more right; I feel that way, too." In the first you accept that the other person
feels the way they do, but in agreement you ally yourself with the other person. Allying
yourself with particular feelings can be a risky business in citizen participation, as it may
cause all the other interest groups to see you as an antagonist. All that is really needed in
the situation is to communicate, in effect: "It's OK with me for you to be just exactly who
you are and feel the way you do." One psychologist has even written a book titled I'm OK
- You're OK to indicate the mutual respect and trust.
Individual Realities:
One way we run into problems with feelings is to assume that if someone has a different
feeling than ours, one of us must be right and one of us must be wrong. But another way
of looking at it is to consider that when two people react differently to the same situation
they are reacting within the rules of their own upbringing, training, experiences and values.
Because upbringing, training, experiences and values are absolutely unique to each person,
then the rules which govern feelings are also absolutely unique to each person. While we
all have enough common background that we can usually agree on what would be a
"normal" reaction, the fact remains that each one of us has areas in which our reactions are
completely unique.
This changes things rather fundamentally: "If there is all one universe then I can say that if
there is a Natural Law that says all things fall down, then I can exclude the possibility that
some things fall up. But since the rules are different for each individual I cannot assume
that just because I was horrified by an event doesn't mean that someone else may not be
delighted - and be perfectly consistent within hislher individual reality."
Yet we have a tendency to try to obliterate the other person's feelings and try to prove that
ours are correct. This proves nothing: it is a fact that they feel the way they feel. The only
appropriate behavior is to accept that they feel the way they feel and begin to report the way
you feel. We may not have the same reactions to the same experiences, but we can begin to
share enough of what is going on in us to begin to understand each other. Incidentally, in
the process of this kind of sharing, people learn, and the roles of their reality may alter
enough so that next time they have a reaction that has more in common with your own.
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Presenting Problems:
Other communications problems arise from the manner in which we try to express our
feelings. Our culture has erected considerable barriers to the expression of feeling; the
individual who expresses strong feelings is considered to be "over-emotional", "overly
sensitive", "irrational", "out of control". But our feelings remain, so we learn to express
feelings indirectly through our content messages. Typically, unless the individual trusts us
and considers us a friend, feelings are known only by implication.
One characteristic of this "communication by implication" is that people send Presenting
Problems. Presenting Problems are like trial balloons - they are small, relatively innocuous
problems which, if they are not rejected, lead to sharing of more basic and deeply
experienced problems.
For example:
One of the fellows in the office might be making little complaints about a co-worker. For
several days you tend to ignore this Presenting Problem, but you finally sit down and listen
and this story spills:
"The co-worker is always doing pesty things - it's not just him, it seems
like lots of people have been doing it lately - maybe it's just that I'm irritable
because of the way things are going at home - things have gotten so bad that
this week I've been sleeping on the couch in the living room - I'm really
desperate. I don't know what to do. Things are falling apart."
This pattern of descending levels of communication, proceeding from the Presenting
Problem to deeper feelings, is typical of communication when there is an effective listener,
but many of our conventional communication skills would not encourage openness. In
fact, unless the sender had such strong feelings that he could override our responses, we
might never know about his problems.
Ineffective Listening:
The basis of much ineffective listening is two-fold:
I. Failure to distinguish those times (as the example above) when
the sender is not expecting you to do anything except understand;
and
2. Failure to listen long enough or with sufficient understanding of
the sender's feelings to really clearly understand the definition of
the problem.
Example:
Sender: "I'm really desperate, I don't know what to do."
Listener: "Don't feel that way, we can work things out."
Now the Sender is not only desperate, but also angry with the Listener for evaluating their
feeling after they have made themself vulnerable. From the Listener's point of view there
wasn't anything else they could do; yet many typical ways of responding run some risk of
communicating non-acceptance.
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Here are twelve typical ways that most people respond in a listening situation:
1. Ordering, Demanding: "You must... ", "You have to..."
2. Warning, Threatening: "You had better... ", "If you don't, then..."
3. Admonishing, Moralizing: "You should... ", "It is your responsibility..."
4. Persuading, Arguing, Lecturing: "Do you realize...?" "The facts are..."
5. Advising, Giving Answers: "Why don't you... ", "Let me suggest... "
6. Criticizing, Disagreeing: "You are not thinking about this properly..."
7. Praising, Agreeing: "But you've done such a good job... ", "I approve of.."
8. Reassuring, Sympathizing: "Don't worry... ", "You'll feel better..."
9. Interpreting, Diagnosing: "What you need is... ", "Your problem is..."
10. Probing, Questioning: "Why do you feel that way...?"
II. Diverting, Avoiding: "We can discuss it later..."
12. Kidding, Using Sarcasm: "When did you read a newspaper last...?"
These messages run some risk of communicating to the sender that it is not acceptable for
them to have their feeling. The risk is that the sender may hear the following emotional
messages from you, the listener:
I. Don't have that feeling.
2. You'd better not have that feeling.
3. You're bad if you have that feeling.
4. Here are some facts so you won't have that feeling.
5. Here's a solution so you won't have that feeling.
6. You're wrong if you have that feeling.
7. Your feeling is subject to my approval.
8. You needn't have that feeling.
9. Here's the reason you have that feeling.
10. Are you really justified in having that feeling?
II. Your feeling isn't worthy of discussion.
.12. You're silly if you persist in having that feeling.
When the sender perceives that they are getting one of these messages there is a risk that
they will become defensive and either justify the feeling further, or close off entirely, never
allowing the listener to hear anything deeper than the Presenting Problem.
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!---
5
An Alternative - Active Listening
An alternative to these kinds of responses is to acknowledge the other person's feeling by
telling them what you understood them to be feeling and thinking.
CODE
DECODE
ACTIVE LISTENING
Definitions:
MESSAGE is the actual experience going on in the Sender.
CODE is the symbolic means, either verbal or non-verbal, by which the
Sender attempts to communicate his message.
DECODE is the Listener's attempt to understand the symbolic
representation of the Sender.
ACTIVE LISTENING: Three Techniques
I. Summarizing
The listener summarizes in their own words, the content and feeling
of the Sender's message and states this to the Sender to confirm
understanding.
Example:
Sender: "This project is so stupid. I feel just like quitting. "
Listener: "Sounds like you're feeling pretty frustrated with that
project. "
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2. Reflecting (the Empathy skill):
The Listener reflects back the unspoken, underlying feelings in the
Sender's message.
Example:
Sender: "I am having a difficult time deciding between these two
jobs."
Listener: "Seems to me you aren't finding joy in either of them. "
3. Asking Questions:
The Listener helps the Sender explore hislher situation through
asking non-threatening questions: "What...? How...?"
Example:
Sender: "These staff meetings are so difficult to run. "
Listener: "What are your objectives for the meetings?"
The Effects of Active Listening
The benefit of Active Listening is that you have communicated acceptance of the Sender's
feeling. In addition it allows you to "check out" your understanding and also they can
correct you if you misunderstood them. Frequently you will find that when you employ
Active Listening, people feel more comfortable in bringing problems to you and in sharing
deeper problems. You may also find that when you use Active Listening, people are able
to talk through their feelings and solve their own problem.
Remember: Who owns the problem? You or the Sender?!!!
Communication: Sending Clear Messages
TVVical Wavs 2f Sending:
The three most typical ways of sending feelings (sending a solution, evaluating and indirect
messages) run some risks of creating defensiveness or resistance.
I. SENDING A SOLUTION: Rather than telling the other person what you are feeling,
you tell them what you want done about it. This could be an order, suggestion, advice,
etc.
Example:
Instead of saying: "I really get annoyed when you borrow my manual
and don't return it:'
You say: "Don't ever borrow my manual again."
Or: "Why don't you get your own manual?"
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7
The risks are as follows:
a. Sending a solution implies a power differential - someone is higher,
someone is lower - and people resist the use of power even when
they agree with the solution.
b. Sending a solution defines the problem poorly. Once you give a
solution, enforcing the solution becomes the problem whether or not
the solution solves the initial problem.
c. Sending a solution communicates a lack of trust. Implicit in sending
the solution is the communication that you don't expect the other
person to be able to figure out the solution.
2. EVALUATING: Another frequent method of sending is to evaluate, blame or judge the
other person.
Example:
Instead of saying: "I really get annoyed when you borrow my manual
and don't return it."
You say: "You're rude and thoughtless about borrowing things."
Or: "You're certainly inconsiderate."
The risks are as follows:
a. People become defensive when you judge or evaluate them.
b. The Judge or Evaluator is in a power position - people may resent
your "one up" position.
c. People resent being interpreted and judged by your standards.
3. INDIRECf MESSAGES: Indirect messages are messages which contain no direct
expression of the Sender's feelings, although frequently the feelings are implied by
voice tone, emphasis, sarcasm. They include "cuts", questions, "cloaked" messages,
denials.
Example:
Instead of saying: "I really get annoyed when you borrow my manual
and don't return it. ..
You say: "Got any spare manuals?"
Or: "If people in this office would be more thoughtful, it sure
would make it a nicer place to work."
The risks are as follows:
a. The message may never get through. You may be so indirect that the other person
doesn't understand you have a problem.
b. What does get through tends to be unclear and undefined negative feeling. One
result of this is that it is difficult to solve the problem. It is too ambiguous.
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c. Ambiguous negative feeling tends to be understood as a generalized rejection rather
than a specific reaction. "If I know you are upset, but I'm not quite sure why, I
will tend to believe 'he/she doesn't like me' rather than 'helshe's upset because I
didn't return their manual.'" Sometimes this may result in the Listener totally
isolating the sender or even launching a massive counter-attack to the imagined
rejection.
An Alternative: Congruent Sending
The alternative to these methods can be called Congruent Sending. The term "Congruent"
comes from the fact that in a Congruent Message the message and the code coincide, fit, are
congruent:
CODE
MATCH
This congruence consists of three parts:
I. Sending feelings instead of evaluations or solutions.
2. Ownership of feelings.
3. Describing rather than evaluating behavior.
1. SENDING FEELINGS INSTEAD OF EVALUATIONS OR SOLUTIONS:
In active Listening we attempted to state for the sender the feelings we understood to be
implied in his statement. When we are sending, rather than rely on the other person to
understand all the implications, we indicate our feelings directly . We tell the other
person what is really going on in us. A congruent message typically contains a feeling
word.
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When we are hurt, annoyed, pleased, frustrated, happy:
Recently there has been much talk about communicating honestly - "Tell it like it is."
Frequently honesty is mistaken for telling everyone your evaluations about them, rather
than your feelings. The basis of the congruent message is that feelings precede
evaluations. When we feel hurt by something we then (as a second response) evaluate
the person who hurt us. So the equations are different:
Typical Equation:
Honesty=Sending
Evaluations.
Underlying Attitude
"I'm going to tell you when you
are good or bad based on your
behavior towards me."
Congruent Equation:
Honesty=Sending
Feelings
"I'll tell you very directly what I
am feeling in response to your
behavior, but I won't judge your
behavior.
2. OWNERSHIP OF FEELINGS:
A major reason for this underlying attitude is the second part of congruency - the sender
must "own" their feelings. By "ownership" we mean that the sender does not blame or
accuse other people for their feelings but takes responsibility for their own feelings.
First attempts to communicate feelings usually come out, "You hurt me when you said
that." This is a "you" message, a feeling message made blaming and accusing by virtue
of the pronoun "you" which indicates that the other person responsible for your feeling.
The Congruent Message is usually an "I" message, such as "I felt hurt when you said
that."
3. DESCRIBING RATHER THAN EV ALUATlNG BEHAVIOR:
The Behavioral Description is the statement which indicates the behavior about which
you have a feeling. It is very easy to confuse a Behavioral Description with an
evaluation.
Example:
"I really get annoyed when you borrow my manual and don't return it." The italicized
portion describes a behavior.
"I really get annoyed when you're so inconsiderate." The italicized portion is an
evaluation with all the risks involved in sending evaluation.
The Behavioral Description specifies the other person's behavior without judging it. It
also indicates the specific behavior about which you have feelings so that the listener
understands which behaviors to modify if they want you to feel differently.
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A Formula for Congruent Sending:
A simple Formula for Congruent Sending is
''I'm + Feeling word + Behavioral Description"
CONCEPT:
OWNERSHIP + SENDING FEELINGS + DESCRffiING, NOT JUDGING
Effects of Congruent Sending:
Congruent Sending encourages you to be a great deal more open and direct with your
feelings. The result is that people learn to trust - they know "where you are at." Your
openness also encourages openness in others. In addition, by owning your feelings and
avoiding judging, you can minimize defensiveness while dealing directly with problems.
GROUP STANDARDS AND PRESSURES
I. GROUP STANDARDS
In a group one member begins to attack another vigorously. A third member of the group
stops the attack by saying, "Hold it, Mac, we don't operate that way here." This is an
expression of group standards.
What are group standards?
How do they emerge?
What function do they perform?
What are some of the implications of standards?
A. Definitions:
"A standard is a behavior pattern highly prized by a group." (Miles)
Standards might be called the structure of relationships agreed upon for the
efficient achievement of group purposes.
B . Examples of Standards:
It is a standard of New England to have baked beans and brown bread on
Saturday evening (standard of a regional group).
People in Detroit read the NEWS and root for the Tigers (standards of a
community).
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There are many standards operating within any group at a given point in time. Some are of
great importance to the group; others are of less importance. All of the following may be
operative in a group at the same time:
The group never forces a silent member to talk.
The group arrives at a decision by voting.
The group gives greater weight to the opinions of the designated leader than to its
other members.
The group always has a mid-morning coffee break.
Whenever a group of people comes together to do a task or solve a problem, standards
begin to emerge which help to make their task more efficient.
Often these take the form of boundaries on behavior. By mutual consent, verbalized or
not, certain working agreements emerge:
Examples: The group always starts on time.
Members do not always sit in the same place.
Decisions are reached by consensus.
Real work stops ten minutes before the end of the meeting.
Hostility may be freely expressed without fear of punishment.
These might be standards of a given group. They have become the property of the group
and have emerged from its life. They are not imposed upon it from the outside, although
they may be the result of influences brought to bear upon the group by some of its
members.
Standards are not imposed upon a group from the outside. Many regulations and
limitations, sometimes in the form of laws, may be imposed upon a group from outside.
Such limitations might be:
Physical: a group may meet only once a month because of the distance people must
travel
Rules: local ordinances
Policy: automobiles owned by the company may not be used for private purposes
These are not necessarily verbalized although they generally become so when they are
challenged. For instance, a group may have always carefully waited until all its members
were present before starting. This would have been an observable fact even though it was
never stated. If it is questioned, however, or an attempt is made to change this standard, it
undoubt~ly would be verbalized. This is the test of standards.
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Individuals may belong to groups having varying sets of standards. The same person or
group of people may belong to a church, the Volunteer Fire Department, the local bowling
team, and the Civic hnprovement League. In each group they may have a surprisingly
different standard of behavior. Often in our society we go from one set of standards to
another with great rapidity, and our ability to do so detennines our ease and effectiveness
within the various groups.
C. Functions:
Standards perfonn the function of stabilizing group life and action. They are
always conservative in that they tend to conserve the established behavior patterns
of the group and are resistive to change.
Standards may not necessarily demand confonnity to an idea or a procedure, but
they always demand acceptance of themselves. For example, a group may have as
one of its standards, "We can accept disagreement and still preserve as a group."
The attempt to force confonnity of this group will be met by resistance from the
group, members of which undoubtedly will forcefully state the group's acceptance
of the standard ofnon-confonnity.
D. Standards of a Mature Group:
Dr. Jack Gibb has suggested several standards or norms which are usually
demonstrated by (and thus evidence of) a mature group:
Objective: the group speaks to data, does not see behavior as good or bad, and
does not deal in motives or personalities.
Provisional- Try: the group takes an experimental attitude towards actions and
decisions.
Participation: all members are involved instead of detached.
E. Some Implications:
It can be seen by implication that standards resist change. Further, they demand
confonnity of the group to those standards.
II. GROUP PRESSURES
Standards, however, are a mixed blessing because of the pressures a group can exert on its
members by enforcing them. When members see observing them as too high a price to pay
for belonging to the group, great pressure can build up in the group.
Group standards need testing frequently. Never underestimate their power.
Some facts about pressures are:
A group can encourage or discourage its "rebels" by the way it views and reviews its
standards.
Pressures of group standards increase when standards are openly supported by more
and more people. A minority against a sizable majority is almost an untenable state to
be in.
The amount of pressure frOm the group which a member is willing to endure is
dependent upon the importance of the standard to him, on the one hand, and belonging
to the group, on the other hand.
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No matter how right a person thinks he is, after a while he usually conform because the
pain he fears will come if he doesn't conform is unbearable.
A group's growth-potential may be related to the way it allows its minorities to test
established standards and advocate changes.
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ATTACHMENT "E"
Steering
Rowing
(The What)
GOVERNANCE
(Deals With:)
Elected Officials
Policy Making
Visioning
Goals
Media
Citizens
(The How)
GOVERNMENT
(Deals With:)
The Organization
Services
Employees
Management
Unions
Budgets
NOTE:
1. It is important for the Governance side to be clear on the"What"
and to share this. Governance monitors what is being done-not
how it is being done
2. It is important for the Governance side to have a clear vision and
Goals. If these are absent, good staff will create their own.
3. It is important that the line between the world of Governance and
Government not be compromised. The fuzzier that this line
becomes, the more dysfunctional the Organization becomes.
The City Manager needs to exist and operate in both worlds.
SUMMARY:
The primary mission of elected officials is to articulate the
Community's vision, hopes, fears, needs and to set goals and
Policies to address them. That's the "What". Working through
the City Manager, the "What" is transmitted to the Government
side and the Government folks focus on the "How"
1
THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
By: David G. Jones. Ph.D.
Ours is a warld .of rapid change-politically and economically, technologically and socialagically,
psychologically and spirirually. The emergence of new natians, the develapment .of mass media,
the advent .of nuclear power, the explosian .of population, the quantum leap in knowledge, all have
cantributed ta the creatian .of a canstantly changing environment requiring radical changes in the
behaviar .of individuals and in the organization of society.
STIMULI FOR CHANGE
Personal and social aspiratians for change emerge from a number .of fundamental farces .or trends
toward innavation in .our current callective life.
o
Creativity: the drive ta transcend the established order of things by giving full expression to
the self in all its unknown potential; the desire to explore, use, and modify the nab1ral
environment and its technological derivatives which man has created.
Adjustment: the discovery that our familiar patterns .of behaviar are na longer apprapriate .or
adequate in a new environment; the need to utilize effectively the changes canstantly being
created in the environment and its established .order.
o
o
Improvement: the concern .of every persan ta imprave themselves, their circumstances, and
their general well-being; the process .of cantinual comparison of ourselves with .others.
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
By the same token individuals and groups tend also to resist change in their behavior and in their
arganizatian.
o Fear .of Unkn.owns: the feeling that only the status quo, the known, is safe, stable, secure,
and certain; a feeling .often justified by the absence .of skill, experience, or the capacity for
action necessary ta carry through the proposed change.
o Existing Satisfactions: the reluctance to give up familiar types .of satisfactions or vested
interests in the status quo whereby any change would apparently mean a personal lass.
o Conflict .of Interests: the experience .of competing demands arising from invalvement in
ather groups and relationships external to the situatian in which change is proposed, as we)) as
any threat to the present traditions, standards, and values .of a person .or group.
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SYSTEMS INVOLVING CHANGE
There are four main dynamic systems toward which efforts for change may be directed, each with
its own unique pattern of process.and structure.
. Individual: each individual personality is a dynamic system in itself of conflicting drives and
forces being constantly confronted with the challenge of change in order to meet new
conditions.
. Group: small face-ta-face groups such as committees, staffs, clubs, tearns, families,
constitute a unique arena for change since in them both interpersonal difficulties between
individuals and problems of interaction with the larger social environment can be more easily
identified and change more effectively initiated.
. Organization: the larger social systems which together comprise the community. such as
educational institutions, business establishments, government agencies, religious associations,
and political parties, are of necessity sensitive to the need for internal efficiency and extemal
good will, and therefore must be prepared to consider any change that promises improvement
or prevents disruption.
. Community: the whole complex of interacting subparts, individuals, groups, and
organizations, produces a network of stresses and strains that results in a variety of stabilized
structures and processes which the community as a single system can do little to change.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHANGE
All dynamic systems are in a continuous process of change, adaptation, adjustment,
reorganization, arising from difficulties in both their internal and external relationships. Diagnosis
may point to one or another of the following factors as the source of difficulty.
. Distribution of Power: power within the system may be too highly concentrated or too
diffuse, exerted in hannful or ineffective ways.
. Mobilization of Energy: energy may be misdirected into irrelevant activities or destructive
modes of behavior.
. Patterns of Communication: communication between subparts of the system may be
inadequate due to defensive responses, distorted perceptions, mutual antagonisms, or mere
ignorance.
. Correspondence with Reality: the system may introduce a bias into its perceptions of
reality, isolate itself from surrounding systems, or misinterpret communications received from
its environment.
. Goals for Action: the values or attitudes and consequent goals of the system may be at
variance with its own best interests.
. Relevant Resources: the system may not have the needed skills, knowledge, or materials
to solve the problems and take the action necessary in meeting effectively the challenges and
opportunities of a changing environment.
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TYPES OF CHANGE
Change may be initiated as a deliberately planned attempt to alter a situation. The effort to innovate
usually involves one or more types of changes in the relationships and functions of the system.
. Structure: when the formal arrangement of persons, responsibilities. and functions is found
to be inadequate, a new structure of organization may be devised to change the relationship of
persons so that the task can be done more effectively and efficiently.
. Technology: when the productivity of a system needs to be improved. technological changes
may be introduced to gain efficiency.
. Behavior: when structural or technological changes are introduced, the persons involved
must be given opportunity to develop new ways of behaving in relationships with others and
new skills relative to their new responsibilities.
. Attitude: when behavioral changes are required. persons must be given opportunity also to
change the assumptions and values which guide their behavior and condition their attitudes
toward change.
ANALYSIS OF CHANGE
Any situation can be considered as a dynamic balance of forces working in opposite directions.
Until some imbalance in these forces is created to upset this equilibrium, no change in the situation
will take place.
. Equilibrium: Kurt Lewin called this dynamic balance a quasi-stationary equilibrium. Thus
only at a distance does a situation (an organization, community. family. person) look as if it
were moving along without any stress or strain -
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. For.ces: A closer look reveals the apparently stable situation to be seething with activity. with
many forces for change encountering an equal number of opposing forces which resist change.
The resultant of the total forces, for and against change. is the equilibrium at a well defined
. level-a delicate balance of activity that produces a quasi-stationary situation. The several
forces may differ in strength; but opposite forces are equal, since every force generates its own
opposite force and since to every action there is a reaction.
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. Driving Forces: One set of forces moves the situation in the direction of an anticipated
change ("a").
. Restraining Forces: One set of forces restrains the situation from moving in the direction
of an anticipated change ("b").
. Residual Forces: Some forces which are present but latent do not operate or appear until a
strong turn in one direction or the other releases them ("c").
. Standards: Within any dynamic system there emerge certain standards or norms which
govern the conduct of the system and set boundaries to the freedom of movement or behavior
within the system. The more an individual or subpart of the system deviates from a particular
standard, the more pressure is brought for conformity. Standards are thus stabilizing factors
and always emerge as forces resisting change, just as the stabilizing forces become increasingly
evident as the angle of a boat's roll increases.
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Tensions: The upper and lower limits of fluctuation in a force field represent the limits of
freedom within a dynamic system. The greater the degree of freedom (of fluctuation in the
force field), the more effectively can additional forces be absorbed. So also an accl1ml11~tion of
forces increases the tension and reduces the freedom with which members of the system can
function. Similarly an expanded spring can reduce the effect of any force upon an automobile;
an accumulation of forces causes the automobile spring to compress, shocks are sharply felt
'and may be destructive.
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. Analysis: A Force Field Analysis is a useful diagnostic tool in the planning of change. A
given situation may be analyzed by assessing the various forces-their type, direction, strength,
source and modifiability. In so doing'it should be remembered that a particular force does not
necessarily represent a particular person, one may be associated with several different forces,
and that a force is the result of an attitude or action. Thus opposing forces express not merely
differences of opinion among persons, but also the indecisions and tensions within and
between individuals.
Increasing the Driving Forces: Change might be brought about by increasing the
number and strength of the driving forces. Two risks are involved. The amount of tension
is increased, thereby limiting the freedom of individuals in the system. Such may be
necessary in a static situation; but it may also produce destructive aggressiveness,
emotionality, ineffectiveness. Unless the number and strength of the driving forces is
maintained, the old situation may gradually return and the change be undone with a high
degree of tension still remaining.
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Decreasing the Driving Forces: Change might be brought about by decreasing the
strength and number of driving forces, or by converting them from driving to restraining
forces. The immediate effect is to reverse the direction of change. Also affected may be
the degree of tension, the degree and rate of change. Such a strategem may prove effective,
however, iI1 certain situations-particularly in order to reduce tension-even though it
immediately biases the situation to some degree against the desired change.
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Decreasing the Restraining Forces: Change might be brought about by decreasing
the strength and number of restraining forces. Such a reduction can usually be best
accomplished through increased participation in problem-solving and decision-making
processes by the persons who are affected by the change effort. Reduction of tension (by
changing standards) thus becomes the first priority so that the persons involved are free to
express their feelings about an anticipated change and their reasons for resisting the change,
as well as being enabled actually to influence the direction, degree, momentum and stability
of change. So also group standards, as restraining forces, being always against change,
will tend to maintain the new standard and stabilize the change rather than resist as before.
The net effect of decreasing the restraining forces is an increase in the relative strength of
the driving forces and therefore in the rate of change. Two risks are involved. Tension
may be reduced to a static state, thereby decreasing the effectiveness of the dynamic sense.
Some of the driving forces may lapse into residual forces, thereby decreasing the total
strength of the forces for change and the consequent degree and momentum of change.
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RESPONSE TO RESISTANCE
Since every force calls into being a counter-force, resistance in some degree is to be expected
whenever change is planned. Such resistance can serve a number of useful functions-by
disclosing inadequate communication, problem-solving, and decision-making processes; by
forcing a clarification of the purpose for change, a re-e~amination of the possible consequences,
and a revision of plans.
. Ineffective Responses to Resistance: Some of the common but usually ineffective
reactions to opposition include:
defense: reacting to resistance as a personal attack by responding with self-justification.
persuasion: attempting to argue persons out of their resistance by responding with
information or ideas to expressions of feeling.
advice: avoiding the expression of feeling in the development of a rational analysis of the
problems being encountered by the subtle transfer of feelings to the other person.
censor: meeting opposition by the expression of an attitude of disapproval.
control: seeking to gain enough power or influence to foree the change by controlling
the opposition.
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punishment: bringing the opposJlJon into line by withholding rewards, attacking
motives, or even eliminating its source.
. Appropriate Responses to Resistance: since resistance exists, it can serve most
creatively when allowed full expression through:
consensus: problem-solving and decision-making processes which involve everyone
affected by the change.
freedom: standards that create a relaxed aunosphere of trust and acceptance.
analysis: the accurate assessment and interpretation of the forces at work in the situation
for which change is anticipated.
PHASES OF PLANNED CHANGE
Kurt Lewin in his pioneering analysis of the process of change identified three aspects of the
change process: unfreezing the system at its present level, moving to the new level, and freezing
on the new level. Studies of change have since identified the following seven phases in the
process of planned change-phases which do not necessarily progress in an orderly developmental
sequence.
1. Development of a Need Cor Change
Before a process of planned change can begin, the difficulties confronting a system must be
translated into actual problem awareness. into both a desire to change and a desire to seek help
from outside the system, i.e., from a change agent. The need for change may be initiated by a
change agent who discovers a difficulty in a potential client system and takes steps to stimulate
awareness, by a third party who brings agent and system together, or by a subpart of the
system itself. .
. Steps
- awareness of the system's difficulties
- desire for change on the part of the system
- desire for help from outside the system
. Problems
- different degrees of problem awareness within the system
- motivation of vested interests to reject problem awareness
- communication blockages which inhibit spread of awareness
- resistance to or inaccessibility of outside help
2. Establishment of a Change Relationship
Once the desire for change and for help has been established, a working relationship must be
developed between the client system and the change agent. So many unknowns exist at this
point that neither party can be sure the relationship will progress satisfactorily. Thus the
success of the entire change process impinges to a great degree on the quality of the
relationship.
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. Steps
- assessment of the client's motivations and resources to use help
- assessment of the agent's motivations and resources to give help
- establishment of mutual expectations for the change relationship
- establishment of a ttial period for the change relationship
. Problems
- client system's initial impression of the change agent
- kind and degree of effon required of the client
- empathetic and neutral posture of the change agent
- change agent's understanding of the client's difficulty
3. Diagnosis of the Problem
The process of working toward change actually gets underway with the task of clarifying and
diagnosing the nature of the difficulty. Since the extent and implications of the problems as
originally understood will in all likelihood change. this phase is a trying period for both parties.
. Steps
- collection and analysis of data relevant to the problem
- collaboration between client and agent in further diagnosis
. Problems
- changing interpretations of the problem
- defensive reaction of threatened vested interests
- inaction emerging from a sense of defeat in the client system
- over-dependency of the client on the agent
- hostile rejection of diagnostic interpretations
4. Establishment of Goals for Action
At this stage the diagnostic interpretations of the problem is translated into defInite intentions to
change by the examination of alternative solutions and possible means of action.
. Steps
- assessment of alternative possibilities for action
- identifIcation of possible leverage points
- decision and emotional commitment to act
- development of a procedural plan
. Problems
- resistance to actually giving up cenain present satisfactions
- anxiety over possible awkwardness or failure in attempting change
- need for opponunity to explore and test consequences of change
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5. Transformation of Intentions into Actual Change Efforts
The success of any change effort is measured by the way in which plans and intentions are
transformed into actual achievements.
. Steps
- inauguration of action
- examination of results
- decision to continue, modify, or abandon the plan for change
. Problems
- eliciting support when and as needed from the change agent
- securing acceptance of change efforts from subparts of the system
- obtaining adequate feedback on the consequences of the effort
6. Generalization and Stabilization of Change
A critical factor in any process of change is the degree to which an accomplished change will
remain a stable and permanent characteristic of the system.
. Steps
- institutionalization of the change within the system
- maintenance of the change by structural and procedural changes
. Problems
- spread of change to outside systems or subparts of the system
- confIrmation of positive results from objective data
7 . Achievement of a Terminal Relationship
The fInal phase of planned change is that of ending the relationship of the client and the agent.
It should be noted that this termination can come as early as the end of the third phase.
. Steps
- assessment of client's ability and readiness to maintain the change
- development of a substitute for the agent within the client system
- redefinition of the agent's role as an occasional consultant
. Problems
- dependence of client on agent for support and guidance
- unforeseen conflicts resulting from the change
- ability of the client to solve new and different problems
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ROLE OF THE CHANGE AGENT
Persons who initiate change or give some degree of direction to the forces involved in an
anticipated change are referred to as "change agents". Examples of professional change agents are:
with individuals, the clinical psychologist; with groups, the social worker; with organizations, the
management consultant; with communities, the adult educator. The main dimensions of the change
agent's role include:
. Diagnostic Clarification of the Problem
- what is the situation in which a difficulty exists?
- what is the nature of the difficulty?
- how did it begin?
- what is maintaining it?
. Assessing the Client System's Motivation and Capacity for Change
- what are the client's reasons for desiring change?
- how ready is the client system to enter a helping relationship?
- what are the forces for and against change?
. Assessing the Change Agent's Motivation and Resources for Help
- what rewards does the change agent seek from the relationship?
- how acceptable are the agent's motives to the client system?
- what effect will the agent's needs have on his ability to help?
- what support is available to the change agent?
- what is the agent's particular competence to help?
. Selecting Appropriate Change Objectives
- how explicit can the objectives for change be?
- what is the most accessible starting or leverage point?
- what is the most effective sequence of steps?
- with whom should the change agent begin to work?
- who should be drawn into the change process?
- what is the linkage between leverage point and other subparts?
. Choosing the Appropriate Helping Role
- mediating and stimulating new connections within the system
- presenting expert knowledge on procedures
- providing strength from within the system
- creating special environments to facilitate leaming
- giving support during the process of change
. Establishing and Maintaining Relationship with the Client System
- developing a positive attitude or willing cooperation
- clarifying expectations about the change relationship
- regulating the intensity and quality of the relationship
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. Guiding the Phases of Planned Change
- recognizing the development of the change process
- recognizing the emotional tone of each phase
. Choosing Appropriate Techniques
- establishing criteria for making contributions
- deciding upon the most appropriate means of help
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